Red Wine

The Argentine wine industry is the fifth leading producer of wine in the world. Argentine wine, as with some aspects of Argentine cuisine, has its roots in Spain. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, vine cuttings were brought to Santiago del Estero in 1557, and the cultivation of the grape and wine production stretched first to neighbouring regions, and then to other parts of the country.
Historically, Argentine winemakers were traditionally more interested in quantity than quality with the country consuming 90% of the wine it produces (12 gallons/45 litres a year per capita according to 2006 figures). Until the early 1990s, Argentina produced more wine than any other country outside Europe, though the majority of it was considered un-exportable. However, the desire to increase exports fuelled significant advances in quality. Argentine wines started being exported during the 1990s, and are currently growing in popularity. The devaluation of the Argentine peso in 2002, following the economic collapse, further fuelled the industry as production costs decreased and tourism significantly increased, giving way to a whole new concept of wine tourism in Argentina. The past years have seen the birth of numerous tourist-friendly wineries with free tours and tastings. The Mendoza Province is now one of Argentina's top tourist destinations and the one which has grown the most in the past years.
The most important wine regions of the country are located in the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan and La Rioja. Salta, Catamarca, Río Negro and more recently Southern Buenos Aires are also wine producing regions. The Mendoza province produces more than 60% of the Argentine wine and is the source of an even higher percentage of the total exports. Due to the high altitude and low humidity of the main wine producing regions, Argentine vineyards rarely face the problems of insects, fungi, moulds and other grape diseases that affect vineyards in other countries. This permits cultivating with little or no pesticides, allowing even organic wines to be easily produced.
There are many different varieties of grapes cultivated in Argentina, reflecting her many immigrant groups. The French brought Auxerrois, which became known as Malbec, which makes most of Argentina's best known wines. The Italians brought vines that they called Bonarda, although Argentine Bonarda appears to be the Corbeau of Savoie, also known as Charbono in California, which may be related to Dolcetto. It has nothing in common with the light fruity wines made from Bonarda Piemontese in Piedmont.[4] Torrontés is another typically Argentine grape and is mostly found in the provinces of La Rioja, San Juan, and Salta. It is a member of the Malvasia group that makes aromatic white wines. It has recently been grown in Spain. Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Chardonnay and other international varieties are becoming more widely planted, but some varieties are cultivated characteristically in certain areas.
The first recorded commercial vineyard was established at Santiago del Estero in 1557 by Jesuit missionaries and was followed by expansion of vineyard plantings in Mendoza in the early 1560s and San Juan between 1569 and 1589. During this time the missionaries and settlers in the area began construction of complex irrigation channels and dams that would bring water down from the melting glaciers of the Andes to sustain vineyards and agriculture. While a provincial governor, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, instructed the French agronomist Miguel Aimé Pouget to bring grapevine cutting from France to Argentina. Of the vines that Pouget brought were the very first Malbec vines to be planted in country. As the infantile Argentine wine industry became centralized in the western part of country among the foothills of the mountains, the population centres of the country developed in the east. Transporting wine by means of a long wagon journey put a crimp in the growth of the wine industry that would not be eased till the 1885 completion of the Argentine railway that connected the city of Mendoza to Buenos Aires. Don Tiburcio Benegas, governor of the province of Mendoza and owner of El Trapiche wine estate, was instrumental in financing and pushing through the construction, convinced that in order for the Argentine wine industry to survive it needed a market. The 19th century also saw the first wave of immigrants from Europe. Many of these immigrants were escaping the scourge of the phylloxera epidemic that ravaged vineyards in their homeland and they brought with them their expertise and winemaking knowledge to their new home.
In the 20th century, the development and fortunes of the Argentine wine industry were deeply influenced by the economic influences of the country. In the 1920s, Argentina was the eighth richest nation in the world with the domestic market feeding a strong wine industry. The proceeding global Great Depression dramatically reduced vital export revenues and foreign investment and lead to a decline in the wine industry. There was a brief revival in the economy during the presidency of Juan Perón but the economy declined soon again under the military dictatorship of the 1960s and 1970s. During this time the wine industry was sustained by the domestic consumption of cheap vino de mesa. By the early 1970s, the average Argentine was consuming nearly 24 gallons (90 litres or around 120 standard 750 millilitre wine bottles) of wine a year compared, a significantly higher amount than other countries such as the United Kingdom and United States which was averaging less than a gallon (3 litres) a person during the same period.
The 1980s saw a period of hyperinflation running at nearly 1000% a year. Foreign investment was mostly stagnant. Under the presidency of Carlos Menem, the country saw some economic stability. The favorable exchange rate on the Argentine peso during the convertibility period saw an influx of foreign investment. However this period also saw a dramatic drop in domestic consumption. Following the example of neighboring Chile, the Argentine wine industry started to more aggressively focus on the export market-particularly the lucrative British and American markets. The presence of Flying winemakers from France, California and Australia brought modern technical know how for viticultural and winemaking techniques such as yield control, temperature control fermentation and the use of new oak barrels. By the end of the 1990s, Argentina was exporting more 3.3 million gallons (12.5 million liters) to the United States with exports to the UK also strong. Wine experts such as Karen MacNeil noted that up to this point that the Argentine wine industry was considered a "sleeping giant" that by the end of the 10th century was waking up.
Located in the western part of the country among the foothills of the Andes, the major wine regions of Argentina have a semi-arid desert like-climate and rely on irrigation from the melted snow caps of the mountains for viticulture.
The major wine regions of Argentina are located in the western part of the country among the foothills of the Andes Mountains between the Tropic of Capricorn to the north and the 40th parallel south. Most of the regions have a semi-arid desert-like climate with annual rainfall rarely exceeding more than 10 inches (250 mm) a year. In the warmest regions (such as Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan and the eastern outreaches of Mendoza, summer temperatures during the growing season can be very hot during the day with temperatures upwards of 104°F (40°C). Night time temperatures can drop to 50°F (10°C) creating a wide diurnal temperature variation. Some regions have more temperate climates such as the Cafayate region of Salta, Río Negro and the western reaches of Mendoza which includes the Luján de Cuyo and Tupungato departments. Wintertime temperatures can drop below 32°F (0°C) but frost is a rare occurrence for most vineyards, except those planted at extremely high altitudes with poor air circulation. Most rainfall occurs during the summer months and in late summer sometimes fall as hail (known as La Piedra), posing potential damage to the vines. These warmer regions can see an average of 320 days of sunshine a year.
The north western wine regions are particularly prone to the effects of the hurricane force winds known as the Zonda which blows from the Andes during the flowering period of early summer. This fierce wind of hot, dry air can disrupt the flowering process and severely reduce potential yields. Most of the growing season is dry with the lack of humidity limiting the risk and hazard from various grape diseases and fungal rot. Many vineyards operate without the need for any chemical spraying, a condition conducive to organic viticulture. The periodic occurrence of the El Niño phenomenon can have a sharp influence on climate condition during a growing season-such as the case during the 1998 vintage when prolong heavy rains brought by El Niño lead to wide spread rot and fungal disease.
The Andes Mountains are the dominant geographical feature of Argentine wine regions, with the snow cap mountains often serving as a back drop view in the vineyards. As winter time snow starts to melt in the spring a intricate irrigation system of dams, canals and channels brings vital water supplies down to the wine regions to sustain viticulture in the dry, arid climates. Most of the wine regions are located within the foothills of the Andes and recent trends have saw a push to plant vineyards on higher elevations closer to the mountains. The climate in some of this regions can be more continental and less prone to extremes in temperatures. Soils throughout the country are most alluvial and sandy with some areas having substrates of clay, gravel and limestone. In the cooler Patagonia region which contains the winemaking provinces of Río Negro and Neuquén, the soil is chalkier.
The growing season in Argentina usually last from budbreak in October to harvest beginning sometime in February. The Instituto Nacional de Vitivinicultura (INV), the main government controlling body for the wine industry, declares the beginning date for harvest in a region with the harvest season sometimes lasting till April depending on the variety and wine region. A sizable population of itinerant labourers provides an abundance of grape pickers at low cost which has slowed the conversion to mechanical harvesting. After harvest, grapes often have to travel long distances over several hours from the rural vineyards to winemaking facilities located in more urban areas. In the 1970s, yields were reported as surpassing 22 tons per acre, a sharp contrast to the average yields in premium wine regions such as Bordeaux and Napa Valley of 2 to 5 tons an acre. As the Argentine wine industry continues to grow in the 21st century, several viticultural related trends will involve improvements in irrigation, yield control, canopy management and the construction of more winemaking facilities closer to the vineyards.
Argentina, like Chile, is unique in the wine world for the absence of the phylloxera threat that has devastated vineyards across the globe. Unlike Chile, the phylloxera louse is present in Argentina but is a particular weak biotype that doesn't survive long in the soil. When it does attack vines, the damage is not significant enough to kill the vine and the roots eventually grow back. Because of this most of the vineyards in Argentina are planted on ungrafted rootstock. There are many theories about why phylloxera has not yet reach this part of the world. The centuries old tradition of flood irrigation where water is allowed to deeply saturate the soil maybe one cause as is the high proportion of sand present in the soil. The relative isolation of Argentina is also cited as a potential benefit against phylloxera with the country's wine regions being bordered by mountains, deserts and oceans that create natural barriers against the travels of the louse. [6] Despite the minimum risk of phylloxera, some producers are turning to grafted rootstock that provides better yield control.
Various methods of vine training was introduced to Argentina by European immigrants in the 19th and 20th century. The espaldera system combined the traditional method of using three wires to train the vines low to the ground. In the 1950s a new system known as parral cuyano was introduced where vines were trained high off the ground with the clusters allowed to hang down. This style was conducive to the high yielding varieties of Criolla and Cereza that were the backbone of the bulk wine producing industry that sprang up in response to the large domestic market. In the late 20th century, as the market turned to focus more on premium wine production, more producers switched back to the traditional espaldera system and began to practice canopy management in order to control yields.
The intricate irrigation system used to bring water from melted snow caps in the Andes originated in the 16th century (with the Spanish settlers using techniques previously used by the Incas) and has been a vital component of agriculture in Argentina. Water flows down from the mountain through a series of ditches and canals where it is stored in reservoirs for use by vineyards which can apply for government regulated water licenses that provide them access to the water. Newly planted vineyards on lands that do not have existing water rights will often use alternative water sources such as digging deep boreholes between 196-650 feet (60-200 meters) below the surface to retrieve water from underground aquifer. These water wells, though costly to build, can supply a vineyard with as much as 66,000 gallons (250,000 litres) of water an hour.
Historically, flood irrigation was the most common method used with large amounts of water are allowed to run across flat vineyard lands. While this method may have been a unwittingly preventive measurement against the advance of phylloxera, it does provide much control for the vineyard manager to limit yields and increase potential quality in the wine grapes. Later a method of furrow irrigation was developed where water is funneled into furrow channels that the vines are planted in. While providing a little more control, this method was still more conducive to producing high yields. In the late 1990s, drip irrigation started to become more popular. Though expensive to install, this method provides the maximize amount of control for the vineyard manager to facilitate yield control and increase potential quality in the grape by leveraging water stress on the vine.
While there is some wine production in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba and La Pampa, the vast majority of wine production takes place in the far western expanse of Argentina leading up to the foothills of the Andes. The Mendoza region is the largest region and the leading producer, responsible for more than two-thirds of the country's yearly production, followed by the San Juan and La Rioja regions to the north. In the far north eastern corner of the country are the provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy and Salta which includes some of the world's highest planted vineyards. In the southern region of Patagonia, the Río Negro and Neuquén provinces have traditionally been the fruit producing centres of the country but have recently seen growth in the planting of cool climate varietals (such as Pinot noir and Chardonnay).
Despite total acreage planted declining from 629,850 acres (255,000 hectares) in 1980 to 360,972 acres (146,081 hectares) in 2003, Mendoza is still the leading producer of wine in Argentina. As of the beginning of the 21st century, the vineyard acreage in Mendoza alone was slightly less than half of the entire planted acreage in the United States and more than the acreage of New Zealand and Australia combined. The majority of the vineyards are found in the Maipú and Luján departments. In 1993, the Mendoza sub region of Luján de Cuyo was the first controlled appellation established in Mendoza. Other notable sub-regions include the Uco Valley and the Tupungato department. Located in the shadow of Mount Aconcagua, the average vineyards in Mendoza are planted at altitudes 1,970-3,610 feet (600-1,100 meters) above sea level. The soil of the region is sandy and alluvial on top of clay substructures and the climate is continental with four distinct seasons that affect the grapevine, including winter dormancy.
Historically, the region has been dominated by production of wine from the high yielding, pink-skinned varieties of Cereza and Criolla Grande but in recent years Malbec has become the regions most popular planting. Cereza and Criolla Grande still account for nearly a quarter of all vineyard plantings in Mendoza but more than half of all plantings are now to premium red varietals which beyond Malbec include Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo and Italian varieties. In the high altitude vineyards of Tupungato, located southwest of the city of Mendoza in the Uco Valley, Chardonnay is increasing in popularity.[6] The cooler climate and lower salinity in the soils of the Maipú region has been receiving attention for the quality of its Cabernet Sauvignon. Wine producers in the region are working with authorities to establish a controlled appellation.
After Mendoza, the San Juan region is the second largest producer of wine with over 116,000 acres (47,000 hectares) planted as of 2003. The climate of this region is considerably hotter and drier than Mendoza with rainfall averaging 6 inches (150 millimetres) a year and summer time temperatures regularly hitting 107°F (42°C). Premium wine production is centered around the Calingasta, Ullum and Zonda departments as well as the Tulum Valley. In addition to producing premium red varietals made from Syrah and Charbono (known locally as Bonarda), the San Juan region has a long history of producing sherry-style wines, brandies and vermouth. The high yielding Cereza vine is also prominent here where it is used for blending and grape concentrate as well as for raisin and table grape consumption.
The La Rioja region was one of the first areas to be planted by Spanish missionaries and has the longest continued history of wine production in Argentina. Though a relatively small region, with only 20,000 acres (8,000 hectares) planted as of 2003, the region is known for aromatic Moscatel de Alexandrias and Torrontés made from a local sub-variety known as Torrontés Riojano.
The vineyards of the north western provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy and Salta are located between the 24th parallel and 26th parallel south and include some of the highest elevated vineyards in the world with many vineyard planted more than 4,900 feet (1,500 meters) above sea level. Two vineyards planted by Bodega Colome in Salta are at elevations of 7,500 feet (2,250 meters) and 9,900 feet (3,000 meters). In contrast, most European vineyards are rarely planted above 1,600 feet (900 meters). Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that the habit of some Argentine producers to tout the altitude of their vineyards in advertisements and on wine labels as if they were grand cru classifications. The soils and climate of the regions are very similar to Mendoza but the unique mesoclimate and high elevation of the vineyards typically produces grapes with higher levels of total acidity which contribute to the wines balance and depth. Of the three regions, Catamarca is the most widely planted with more than 5,800 acres (2,300 hectares) under vine as of 2003. In recent years the Salta region, and particularly its sub-region of Cafayate, have been gaining the most worldwide attention the quality of its full bodied whites made from Torrontés Riojano as well as its fruity reds made from Cabernet Sauvignon and Tannat.

California wine is wine made in the U.S. state of California. Nearly three-quarters the size of France, California accounts for nearly 90 percent of entire American wine production. The production in California alone is one third larger than that of Australia. If California were a separate country, it would be the world's fourth-largest wine producer.
The state's viticultural history dates back to the 18th century when Spanish missionaries planted the first vineyards to produce wine for Mass.
Following a wine renaissance in the mid-20th century, Californian wine entered the international stage at the 1976 Judgment of Paris wine competition when Californian wines beat out French wines in both red and white wine categories. Today there are more than 1,200 wineries in the state, ranging from small boutique wineries to large corporations like E & J Gallo Winery with distribution across the globe.
The state of California was first introduced to Vitis vinifera vines in the 18th century by the Spanish, who planted vineyards with each mission they established. The wine was used for religious sacraments as well as for daily life. The vine cuttings used came from Mexico and were the descendant of the "common black grape" (as it was known) brought to the New World by Hernán Cortés in 1520. The grape's association with the church caused it to become known as the Mission grape, which was to become the dominant grape variety in California until the 20th century.
The California Gold Rush in the mid-19th century brought waves of new settlers to the region, increasing the population and local demand for wine. The newly growing wine industry took hold in Northern California around the counties of Sonoma County AVA and Napa. During this period some of California's oldest wineries were founded including Buena Vista Winery, Charles Krug Winery, Inglenook Winery and Schramsberg Vineyard. Chinese immigrants played a prominent role in the development of the Californian wine industry during this period-building wineries, planting vineyards, digging the underground cellars and harvesting grapes. Some even assisted as winemakers prior to the passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act which severely affected the Chinese community in favor of encouraging "white labour." By 1890, most of the Chinese were out of the wine industry.
The late 19th century also saw the advent of the phylloxera epidemic which had already ravaged French and other European vineyards. Vineyards were destroyed and many smaller operations went out of business. Fortunately the remedy of grafting resistant American rootstock was well known and the Californian wine industry was able to quickly rebound and utilized the opportunity to expand the plantings of new grape varieties. By the turn of the 20th century nearly 300 grape varieties were being grown in the state, supplying its nearly 800 wineries. Worldwide recognition seemed imminent until January 16, 1919 when the 18th Amendment ushered in the beginning of Prohibition. Vineyards were ordered to be uprooted and cellars were destroyed. Some vineyards and wineries were able to survive by converting to table grape or grape juice production. A few more were able to stay in operation in order to continue to provide churches sacramental wine, an allowed exception to the Prohibition laws. But most went out of business. By the time that Prohibition was repealed in 1933, only 140 wineries were still in operation.
It took time for the Californian wine industry to recover from this setback. By the 1960s, California was primarily known for its sweet port-style wines made from Carignan and Thompson Seedless grapes. However a new wave of winemakers soon emerged and helped usher in a renaissance period in California wine with a focus on new winemaking technologies and an emphasis on quality. Several well known wineries were founded in this decade including Robert Mondavi, Heitz Wine Cellars and David Bruce Winery. As the quality of Californian wine improved, the region started to receive more international attention. A watershed moment for the industry occurred in 1976 when British wine merchant Steven Spurrier invited several Californian wineries to participate in a blind tasting event in Paris. It was to compare the best of California with the best of Bordeaux and Burgundy. In an event known as the The Judgment of Paris, Californian wines shocked the world by sweeping the wine competition in both the red and white wine categories. Throughout the wine world, perspectives about the potential of California wines started to change. The state's wine industry continued to grow as California emerged to become one of the world's premier wine regions.
California is very geologically diverse region and is equally varied in the range of climates and terroirs that can be found. Most of the state's wine regions are found between the Pacific coast and the Central Valley. The Pacific Ocean and large bays, like San Francisco Bay serve as tempering influences to the wine regions nearby providing cool winds and fog that balance the heat and sunshine. While drought can be a viticultural hazard, most areas of California receive sufficient amounts of rainfall with the annual rainfall of wine regions north of San Francisco between 24-45 inches (615-1150 mm) and the more southern regions receiving 13-20 inches. Winters are mild with little threat of frost damage though springtime frost can be a hazard. To curb the threat of frost, vineyard owners will often employ the use of wind machines, sprinklers and smudge pots to protect the vines.
While California's wine regions can be generally classified as having a Mediterranean climate, there are also regions with more continental climates. Proximity to the Pacific or bays as well as unobstructed access to the cool currents that come off them will dictate the relative coolness of the wine region. Areas surrounded by mountain barriers, like some parts of Sonoma and Napa counties will be warmer due to the lack of this cooling influence. The soil types and landforms of California vary greatly, having been influenced by the plate tectonics of the North American and Pacific Plates. In some areas the soils can be so diverse that vineyards will establish blocks of the same vine variety planted on different soils for purpose of identifying different blending components. This diversity is one of the reasons why California has so many different and distinct American Viticultural Areas.
California has over 427,000 acres (1,730 km2) planted under vines mostly located in a stretch of land covering over 700 miles (1,100 km) from Mendocino County to the southwestern tip of Riverside County. There are over 107 American Viticultural Areas (AVAs), including the well known Napa, Russian River Valley, Rutherford and Sonoma Valley AVAs. The Central Valley is California's largest wine region stretching for 300 miles (480 km) from the Sacramento Valley south to the San Joaquin Valley. This one region produces nearly 75% of all California wine grapes and includes many of California's bulk, box and jug wine producers like Gallo, Franzia and Bronco Wine Company.[3]

The wine regions of California are often divided into 4 main regions

North Coast - Includes most of North Coast, California, north of San Francisco Bay. The large North Coast AVA covers most of the region. Notable wine regions include Napa Valley and Sonoma County and the smaller sub AVAs within them. Mendocino and Lake County are also part of this region.
Central Coast - Includes most of the Central Coast of California and the area south and west of San Francisco Bay down to Santa Barbara County. The large Central Coast AVA covers the region. Notable wine regions in this area include Santa Clara Valley AVA, Santa Cruz Mountains AVA, San Lucas AVA, Paso Robles AVA, Santa Maria Valley AVA, Santa Ynez Valley and Livermore Valley AVA.
South Coast - Includes portion of Southern California, namely the coastal regions south of Los Angeles down to the border with Mexico. Notable wine regions in this area include Temecula Valley AVA, Antelope Valley/Leona Valley AVA, San Pasqual Valley AVA and Ramona Valley AVA.
Central Valley - Includes California's Central Valley and the Sierra Foothills AVA. Notable wine regions in this area include the Lodi AVA.

Over a hundred grape varieties are grown in California including French, Italian and Spanish wine varietals as well as hybrid grapes and new vitis vinifera varieties developed at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology. The seven leading grape varieties are:

* Cabernet Sauvignon
* Chardonnay
* Merlot
* Pinot noir
* Sauvignon blanc
* Syrah
* Zinfandel

Other important red wine grapes include Barbera, Cabernet franc, Carignane, Grenache, Malbec, Mouvedre, Petite Syrah, Petit Verdot and Sangiovese. Important white wine varietals include Chenin blanc, French Colombard, Gewürztraminer, Marsanne, Muscat Canelli, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris, Riesling, Roussane, Sémillon, Trousseau gris, and Viognier.

Up until the late 1980s, the Californian wine industry was dominated by the Bordeaux varietals and Chardonnay. Sales began to drop as wine drinkers grew bored with the familiarity of these wines. Groups of winemakers like Rhône Rangers and a new wine wave of Italian winemakers dubbed "Cal-Ital" reinvigorated the industry with new wine styles made from different varietals like Syrah, Viognier, Sangiovese and Pinot grigio. The Santa Cruz based Bonny Doon Vineyard was one of first wineries to actively promote these more obscure grape varieties. The large variety of wine grape also encourages a large variety of wines. California produces wines made in nearly every single known wine style including sparkling, dessert and fortified wines.
While Californian winemakers increasingly craft wines in more "Old World" or European wine styles, most Californian wines (along with Australia, New Zealand, Chile and Argentina) favor simpler, more fruit dominant New World wines. The reliably warm weather allows many wineries to use very ripe fruit which brings up a more fruit forward rather than earthy or mineralic style of wine. It also creates the opportunity for higher alcohol levels with many Californian wines having over 13.5%. The style of Californian Chardonnay differs greatly from wines like Chablis with Californian winemakers frequently using malolactic fermentation and oak aging to make buttery, full bodied wines. Californian Sauvignon blancs are not as herbaceous as wines from the Loire Valley or New Zealand but do have racy acidity and fresh, floral notes. Some Sauvignon blanc are given time in oak which can dramatically change the profile of the wine. Robert Mondavi first pioneered this style as a Fume blanc which other Californian winemakers have adopted. However, that style is not strictly defined to mean an oak wine.
The style of California Cabernet Sauvignon that first put California on the world's wine map at the Judgment of Paris is still a trademark style today. The wines are known for their concentration of fruits and structure which produces lush, rich wines that can age well. Merlot became widely planted in the 1990s due to its wide popularity, and is still the highest selling of all varietal wines in the country. Many sites that were ill suited for the grape began to produce harsh, characterless wines trying to model Cabernet. Merlot planted on better sites tends to produce a plush, concentrated style. The profile of Californian Pinot noir generally favours a more intense, fruity style than the subtler, more elegant wines of Burgundy or Oregon With the region generally being too warm for the variety, the cooler areas with more maritime influence are favoured. Until being passed by Cabernet in 1998, Zinfandel was the most widely planted red wine grape in California. This was due in part to the wide popularity of White Zinfandel. Despite being made from the same grape, the only similarity between White and Red Zinfandel is the name. Red Zinfandel is a powerful, fruity wine with high levels of acidity and a jammy type flavour. White Zinfandel is a thin, slightly sweet blush wine. While the grape does have European origins, Zinfandel is considered a unique American style grape.
California sparkling wine traces its roots to Sonoma in the 1880s with the founding of Korbel Champagne Cellars. The Korbel brothers made sparkling wine according to the méthode champenoise from Riesling, Chasselas, Muscatel and Traminer. Today most California sparkling wine is largely made from the same grapes used in Champagne-Chardonnay, Pinot noir and some Pinot meunier. Some wineries will also use Pinot blanc, Chenin blanc and French Colombard. The premium quality producers still use the méthode champenoise (or traditional method) while some low cost producers, like Gallo's Andre brand or Constellation Brands' Cook's, will use the Charmat method.
The potential for quality sparkling wine has attracted Champagne houses to open up wineries in California. These include Moët et Chandon's Domaine Chandon, Taittinger's Domaine Carneros and Louis Roederer's Roederer Estate. Despite being made with mostly the same grapes and with the same production techniques, California sparkling wines do not set out to be imitators of Champagne but rather to forge their own distinctive style. Instead of having the "biscuity", yeasty quality that distinguishes most high quality Champagnes, premium California sparkling wines show clarity of fruit flavors without being heavily "fruity". The wines strive for finesse and elegance. The optimal climate condition allows most sparkling wine producers to make a vintage dated wine every year while in Champagne this would only happen in exceptional years.
Following Prohibition, California's wine industry had a reputation for producing low quality port-style wine. Since the wine renaissance of the 1960s, the quality of California's dessert and fortified wines has been dramatically improved. Beringer was one of the first to create a botrytized wine from Sauvignon blanc and Sémillon. Though unlike in Sauternes, Beringer's wine was made of grapes regularly harvested and then introduced at the winery to Botrytis cinerea spores created in a laboratory. Since then California winemakers in places like the Anderson Valley AVA have found vineyards where this noble rot can occur naturally on the grapes. The Anderson and Alexander Valley AVAs have also developed a reputation for their Late Harvest wines made from Riesling. Several French and Italian style Muscat wines are produced throughout California and are known for their intense aromatics and balanced acidity. The port-style wines in California are often made from the traditional Portuguese wine grapes like Touriga Nacional, Tinta Cão and Tinta Roriz. Some uniquely Californian styles are also made from Zinfandel and Petite Syrah.

Chilean wine is wine made in the South American country of Chile. The region has a long viticultural history for a New World wine region dating to the 16th century when the Spanish conquistadors brought Vitis vinifera vines with them as they colonized the region. In the mid-18th century, French wine varietals such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot were introduced. In the early 1980s, a renaissance began with the introduction of stainless steel fermentation tanks and the use of oak barrels for aging. Wine exports grew very quickly as quality wine production increased. The number of wineries has grown from 12 in 1995 to over 70 in 2005. Chile is now the fourth largest exporter of wines to the United States. The climate has been described as midway between that of California and France. The most common grapes are Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Carmenère. So far Chile has remained free of phylloxera louse which means that the country's grapevines do not need to be grafted.
European Vitis vinifera vines were brought to Chile by Spanish conquistadors and missionaries in the 16th century around 1554. Local legend states that the conquistador Francisco de Aguirre himself planted the first vines. The vines most likely came from established Spanish vineyards planted in Peru which included the "common black grape", as it was known, that Hernán Cortés brought to Mexico in 1520. This grape variety would become the ancestor of the widely planted Pais grape that would be the most widely planted Chilean grape till the 21st century. Jesuit priests cultivated these early vineyards, using the wine for the celebration of the Eucharist. By the late 16th century, the early Chilean historian Alonso de Ovalle described widespread plantings of "the common black grape", Muscatel, Torontel, Albilho and Mollar.
During the Spanish rule, vineyards were restricted in production with the stipulation that the Chilean should purchase the bulk of their wines directly from Spain itself. In 1641, wine imports from Chile and the Viceroyalty of Peru into Spain were banned, severely damaging the wine industry in the colony. The market loss caused the huge surplus of grapes to be made into pisco and aguardiente. The concentration solely on pisco production, nearly eliminated wine production in Peru. For the most part the Chileans ignored these restrictions, preferring their domestic production to the oxidized and vinegary wines that didn't fare well during the long voyages from Spain. They were even so bold as to start exporting some of their wines to neighboring Peru with one such export shipment being captured at sea by the English privateer Francis Drake. When Spain heard of the event rather than being outraged at Drake, an indictment was sent back to Chile with the order to uproot most of their vineyards. This order, too, was mostly ignored.
In the 18th century, Chile was known mostly for its sweet wines made from the Pais and Muscatel grapes. To achieve a high level of sweetness the wines were often boiled which concentrated the grape must. Following his shipwreck off the coast at Cape Horn, Admiral John Byron (Grandfather of the poet Lord Byron) traveled across Chile and came back to England with a glowing review of Chilean Muscatel comparing it favorably to Madeira. The 19th century wine writer André Julien was not as impressed, comparing Chilean wines to a "potion of rhubarb and senna".
Despite being politically linked to Spain, Chile's wine history has been most profoundly influenced by French, particularly Bordeaux, winemaking. Prior to the phylloxera epidemic, wealthy Chilean landowners were influenced by their visits to France and began importing French vines to plant. Don Silvestre Errázuriz was the first, importing Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet franc, Malbec, Sauvignon blanc and Sémillon. He hired a French oenologist to oversee his vineyard planting and to produce wine in the Bordeaux style. Errázuriz saw potential in Chile and even experimented with the German wine grape Riesling. In events that parallel those of the Rioja wine region, the entrance of phylloxera into the French wine world turned into a positive event for the Chilean wine industry. With vineyards in ruin, many French winemakers traveled to South America, bringing their experience and techniques with them.
Political instability in the 20th century, coupled with bureaucratic regulations and high taxes tempered the growth of the Chilean wine industry. Prior to the 1980s, the vast majority of Chilean wine was considered low quality and mostly consumed domestically. As awareness of Chile's favorable growing conditions for viticulture increased so did foreign investment in Chilean wineries. This period saw many technical advances in winemaking as Chile earned a reputation for reasonably priced premium quality wines. Chile began to export extensively, becoming the third leading exporter, after France and Italy, into the United States by the turn of the 21st century. It has since dropped to fourth in the US, being surpassed by Australia, but focus has switched to developing exports in the world's other major wine markets like the United Kingdom and Japan.
Chile is a long, narrow country that is geographically and climatically dominated by the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Chile's vineyards are found along an 800 mile stretch of land from Atacama Region to the Bio-Bio Region in the south. The climate is varied with the northern regions being very hot and dry compared to the cooler, wetter regions in the south. In the Valle Central around Santiago, the climate is dry with an average of 15 inches (38 centimetres) of rain and little risk of springtime frost. The close proximity to the Dry Andes help create a wide diurnal temperature variation between day and night time temperatures. This cool drop in temperature is vital in maintaining the grapes' acidity levels.
Most of Chile's premium wine regions are dependent on irrigation to sustain vineyards, getting the necessary water from melting snow caps in the Andes. In the developing wine regions along the Coastal Ranges and in the far south, there is not a lack in needed rainfall but vineyard owners have to deal with other factors such as the Humboldt Current from the Pacific which can bathe a vineyard with a blanket of cool air. For the rest of Chile's wine regions, the Coastal Ranges serve a buffer from the current and also acts as a rain shadow. The vineyards in these regions are planted on the valley plains of the Andes foothills along a major river such as the Maipo, Rapel and Maule Rivers.
The vineyards of Chile fall between the latitudes of 32 and 38° s which, in the Northern Hemisphere would be the equivalent of southern Spain and North Africa. However the climate in Chile's wine regions is much more temperate than those regions, comparing more closely to California and Bordeaux. Overall, it is classified as a Mediterranean climate with average summer temperatures of 59-64 °F (15-18 °C) and potential highs of 86 °F (30 °C).
In December 1994, the Republic of Chile defined the following viticultural regions-
Atacama, within the Atacama region (III administrative region). Within it are two subregions, the Copiapó Valley and the Huasco Valley, both of which are coterminous with the provinces of the same names. The region is known primarily for its Pisco production. Atacama is also an important source of table grapes.
Coquimbo, within the Coquimbo Region (IV administrative region). It has three subregions: Elqui Valley, Limarí Valley, and the Choapa Valley. All subregions are coterminous with the provinces of the same names. Like the Atacama this region is primarily known for Pisco and table grapes.
Aconcagua, within the Valparaiso Region (V administrative region). It includes two subregions, the Valley of Aconcagua and the Valley of Casablanca. The Aconcagua Valley is coterminous with the province of that name. The Casablanca Valley is coterminous with the comuna of that name. The Panquehue commune is also gradually developing a reputation for high quality wine production. Casablanca is one of Chile's cooler wine region and is often compared to the Californian wine region of Carneros and grows similar grape varietals like Chardonnay and Pinot noir. Casablanca's growing seasons last up to a month longer than other regions, typically harvesting in April. The northern region of Aconcagua is Chile's warmest wine region and is primarily planted with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. The soil of this region is composed mainly of alluvial deposits left over from ancient river beds.
Valle Central, which spans the O'Higgins Region (VI) and Maule Region (VII) Administrative Regions and the Administrative Metropolitan Region. Within it are four subregions: the Maipo Valley, the Rapel Valley, the Curicó Valley and the Maule Valley. This is Chile's most productive and internationally known wine region, due in large part to its close proximately to the country's capital Santiago. It is located directly across the Andes' from Argentina's most well known wine region Mendoza Province. The Maipo Valley is the most widely cultivated valley and is known for Cabernet Sauvignon. The Rapel wine region in the Colchagua Province is also known for it Cabernet. Curicó has both red and white wine varieties planted but is most widely known for it Chardonnay. The Maule Valley still has large plantings of the local Pais but is gradually being planted with better red wine varieties. The soil of Maipo Valley is noted for high salinity stemming from irrigation from the Maipo river and low potassium level which has some impact on the grapevines. Vineyards in the Maule also suffer from low potassium as well as deficient nitrogen levels. Advances in viticultural techniques have helped vineyards in these regions compensate for some of these effects.
Southern Chile, within the Bio-Bio Region (VIII). Two subregions are included: Itata Valley and Bío-Bío Valley. The region is primarily known for its mass produce Pais box and jug wines though Concha y Toro Winery has experimented with Gewürztraminer from this region. The southern regions have more rainfall, lower average temperatures and fewer hours of sunlight than the northern wine regions.
There is not much vintage variation due to the reliability of favorable weather with little risk of spring time frost or harvest time rains. The main exception, again, is Casablanca due in part to its closer proximately to the Pacific. For the Chilean wine regions in the Valle Central, the Andes and Coastal Ranges create a rain shadow affect which traps the warm arid air in the region. At night, cool air comes into the area from the Andes which dramatically drops the temperature. This help maintain high levels of acidity to go with the ripe fruit that grapes develop with the long hours of uninterrupted sunshine that they get during the day. The result is a unique profile of flavonoids in the wine which some Chilean wineries claim make Chilean wines higher in resveratrol and antioxidants. Harvest typically begins at the end of February for varieties like Chardonnay with some red wine varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon being picked in April and Carmenère sometimes staying on the vine into May.
The Andes also provide a ready source of irrigation which was historically done in flood plain style. Chilean vineyard owners would dig canals throughout their vineyards and then flood the entire surface area with water allowing some to seep into the ground and the run off to be funnel away through the canals. This encouraged excessive irrigation and high yields which had a negative effect on quality. During the wine renaissance of the 1980s & 1990s more vineyards converted to drip irrigation system which allowed greater control and helped reduce yields. The soil composition of Chile's vineyards varies from the clay dominated landscapes of Colchagua, which is thus heavily planted with the clay-loving Merlot, to the mixture of loam, limestone and sand found in other regions. In the southern Rapel and parts of Maule, tuffeau soil is present with volcanic soil being found in parts of Curico and Bio-Bio.
Chile has benefited from an influx of foreign investment and winemaking talent that begin in the late 20th century. Flying winemakers introduced new technology and styles that helped Chilean wineries produce more international recognized wine styles. One such improvement was the use of oak. Historically Chilean winemakers had aged their wines in barrels made from rauli beechwood which imparted to the wine a unique taste that many international tasters found unpleasant. Gradually the wineries began to convert to French and American oak or stainless steel tanks for aging.
Financial investment manifested in the form of European and American winemakers opening up their own wineries or collaborating with existing Chilean wineries to produce new brands. These include:

* Robert Mondavi, collaboration with Viña Errázuriz to produce Sena
* Miguel A. Torres, Catalan winemaker opened Miguel Torres Chile in 1979
* Kendall-Jackson, opened Viña Calina
* Château Lafite Rothschild, collaboration with Los Vascos
* Bruno Prats, Owner of Château Cos d'Estournel, and Paul Pontallier, former winemaker of Chateau Margaux, opened Domaine Paul Bruno
* Château Mouton Rothschild, collaboration with Concha y Toro Winery to produce Almaviva.

Over twenty grape varieties are grown in Chile, mainly a mixture of Spanish and French varieties, but many wineries are increasing experimentation in higher numbers.[1] For most of Chile's history, Pais was the most widely planted grape only recently getting passed by Cabernet Sauvignon. Other red wine varieties include Merlot, Carménère, Zinfandel, Petite Sirah, Cabernet franc, Pinot noir, Syrah, Sangiovese, Barbera, Malbec, and Carignan. White wine varieties include Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Sauvignon vert, Sémillon, Riesling, Viognier, Torontel, Pedro Ximénez, Gewürztraminer and Muscat of Alexandria.
Chilean winemakers have been developing a distinct style for their Cabernet Sauvignon, producing an easy drinking wine with soft tannins and flavors of mint, black currant, olives and smoke. The country's Chardonnays are less distinctive, following more the stereotypical New World style. While sparkling wines have been made since 1879, they have not yet established a significant place in Chile's wine portfolio.
In the late 20th century as Chilean wines became more popular, wine tasters around the world began to doubt the authenticity of wines labeled Merlot and Sauvignon blanc. The wines lack many of the characteristics and typicity of those grapes. Ampelographers began to study the vines and found that what was considered Merlot was actually the ancient Bordeaux wine grape Carménère that was thought to be extinct. The Sauvignon blanc vines were found to actually be Sauvignonasse, also known as Sauvignon vert, or a mutated Sauvignon blanc/Sémillon cross. In response to these discoveries several Chilean wineries began to import true Merlot and Sauvignon blanc cuttings to where most bottle of wines labeled Merlot and Sauvignon blanc from vintages in the 21st century are very likely to truly be those varieties.
Chilean wines have ranked very highly in international competitions. For example, in the Berlin Wine Tasting of 2004, 36 European experts blind tasted wines from two vintages each of eight top wines from France, Italy and Chile. The first and second place wines were two Cabernet-based reds from Chile: Viñedo Chadwick 2000 and Sena 2001. The Berlin Wine Tasting of 2005 held in Brazil featured five Chilean wines in the top seven. In the Tokyo Wine Tasting of 2006, Chilean wines won four of the top five rankings.

Few wine producing countries have quite so sharp an image as New Zealand. The word sharp is apt, for the wines are characterized by piercingly crystalline flavours and bracing acidity. But then a high proportion of the world's wine drinkers will never have experienced proof of this, for New Zealand is not just one of the most isolated countries on earth (more than three hours' flight from its nearest and domineering neighbour Australia), but is also small. It produces about the same amount of wine as Cyprus, less than a tenth as much as Australia. Many people who try New Zealand wines fall madly in love with them.

This has happened only recently. In 1960 the country had less than 1,000 acres (400 ha) of vines, mainly in Auckland and Hawkes Bay and too many of them hybrids. By 1980 there were 14,000 acres (5,600 ha), 2000 of which were in the brand-new Marlborough region on the South island. The 1980's saw stabilization and upgrading. In this first boom poor varieties were planted in unsuitable places. Prices fell alarmingly. A government programme in the mid-1980's grubbed out over a third of the acreage. This was followed in the 1990's by the most amazing expansion - it almost seemed as though anyone with a few acres wanted to try their hand at vine-growing - so that by 2000 the total was more than 30,000 acres (12,000 ha) and there were 358 wineries, double the numbers of just seven years before.

It was New Zealanders who coined the term and bought in the concept of a "lifestyle winery": a bucolic way of life whereby, typically a fine educatioh is focused on producing, in the most pleasing environment, one of life's more delicious commodities from the earth.

New Zealand had some natural problems to contend with before this enthusiasm could be positively harnessed. Only 150 years ago much of this long, thin country was covered with rain-forest. Soils here tend to be so rich in nutrients that vines, like everything else, grow too vigorously for their own good, a phenomenon exacerbated by the country's generous rainfall. Because of this, New Zealand wines in the 1970's and 1980's too often tasted of leaves rather than fruit, especially the reds. Grapes were often simply too heavily shaded to ripen properly.

The introduction of canopy management techniques, notably by state viticulturist Dr Richard Smart, changed all this, and allowed light to shine both literally and figuratively on New Zealand's unique style of wine. (Professor Hans Schultz of Geisenheim argues that increasing ultraviolet radiation due to ozone depletion in the southern hemisphere is also helping to build pronounced wine flavours even at New Zealand's high latitudes).

Winegrowing New Zealand lies, in terms of the northern hemisphere, on latitudes between those of Morocco and Bordeaux. The effects of latitude are countered though by the Pacific, by strong prevailing westerlies and by the effects of the mountains on their rain-clouds: factors that give the two islands a wide range of growing conditions - almost all cooler than the bare figures suggest. Enthused by the relative coolness (compared with Australia) most growers initially took Germany as their model. Far too much Muller-Thurgau was planted as a result.

Chardonnay finally overtook this dreary grape (admittedly less dreary in New Zealand than in Germany) in 1992 and it has been the country's most planted vine variety ever since, made in a relatively narrow range of crisp, often oaked styles.

It was not Chardonnay but Sauvignon Blanc, however, that made the world take notice of New Zealand. After all, decent Chardonnay is made virtually everywhere; a cool climate is needed if Sauvignon is to be lively, and the coo, bright, sunny, and windy northern tip of the South Island seems to have been designed to intensify the scarcely subtle twang of Sauvignon. Early examples in the 1980's opened a Pandora's box of flavour that no one could ignore and most importantly, no other part of the world seems able to replicate.

The success of Marlborough Sauvignon, a wine you either love or hate, has made Sauvignon Blanc almost as widely planted in New Zealand as chardonnay. But the third most important variety, by an increasingly large margin, is Pinot Noir, enjoying success for much the same reason as Sauvignon Blanc: New Zealand's cool climate. In a surprisingly wide range of wine regions, this finicky grape offers another chance of succeeding where so many others (most importantly, much of Australia) have failed.

Among other red grapes, Merlot overtook the inconveniently late-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon in 2000. Bordeaux blends are in general more popular with Kiwis themselves than outside in the big, wide, Cabernet-saturated world. Other significant grapes include Riesling (which can be very fine here, either dry or sweet but too oftenj in between) and other hopes are variously invested in Pinot Gris, Semillon, Gewurztraminer and Cabernet Franc. Isolation has proved no defence against vine pests and diseases. Most of these new plantings are grafted onto phylloxera-resistant rootstocks.

New Zealand wine has come a long way since it was known locally as "Dally plonk", a reference to settlers from Dalmatia, lured from the kauri-gum forests of the far north to plant vineyards near Auckland in the early 20th century. They persisted despite a rainy subtropical climate; several of the families in what is now a surprisingly good red-wine area have Dalmatian names. As in Australia's Hunter Valley, cloud cover moderates what could be overmuch sunshine and gives steady ripening conditions. Vintage-time rain and rot are problems. The most ingenious (and successful) answer has been to plant, as it were, out to sea - on an island east of the city that misses the mainland rain. Waiheke island's Stonyridge and Goldwater Cabernets are evidence of a mesoclimate miraculously right for Bordeaux grapes.

Of the wineries using West Auckland grapes, Kumeu River is the most successful. Collards is another largely edicated to local fruit. Most other Auckland wineries such as Nobilo's and Selaks (both owned by Hardys of Australia), Babich, Matua Valley, Delegat's and Villa Maria draw on other wine regions for the majority of their grapes.

The wine giant Montana has over 60% of the New Zealand market following its purcfhase of Corbans (the second largest company) in 2000. Both ferment in local sub-wineries in Gisborne, Hawkes Bay or Marlborough and finish their wines in Auckland. But many wine producers still transport white grapes long distances to their own crushers - a process that is not without some risk.
Gisborne on the east coast of the North island (it has another name, Poverty Bay), like so many of New Zealand's wine regions) is a good example of a region plundered by the bottlers. It is the country's third most important wine region , after Marlborough and then Ne4w Zealand's answer to Bordeaux: Hawkes Bay, but has very few wineries. Gisborne, warmer but wetter than Hawkes Bay, especially in autumn, grows almost exclusively white grapes on relatively fertile soils and it has a particular reputation for Chardonnay.

The North Island's most exciting area for Pinot Noir is variously called Martinborough, Wairarapa and Wellington; it is just an hour's drive west of the nation's capital over the mountains and into the country's eastern rain shadow. Temperatures may be lower but autumns are drier here than in other North Island wine regions, and its nearly 40 wineries, led by Ata Rangi, Martinborough Vineyards, and Dry River, have made some of New Zealand's most vividly varietal Pinot Noir so far. It has ranged from potently plumy to lean, dry and earthy; but then so does burgundy. Here Chardonnay ripens well, keeping high acidity, while Riesling has demonstrated real potential.

Just across the windy straits on the South island, the little Nelson region to the west of Marlborough has higher rainfall and richer soil than Martinborough but does well with similar grape varieties.

Meanwhile, well south of Marlborough, onj the plains surround Christchurch and an hour's drive north in undulating terrain at Waipara, Canterbury's winemakers are producing crisp, flinty Rieslings and Chardonnays as well as Pinot Noir ranges from disappointingly herbal ro tantalizingly promising in extremely varied environments. Canterbury's grapes struggle to ripen in some years. Even further south, testing the limits of cool-climate grape-growing, is Central Otago, the world's southernmost wine region. In this mountainous inland region the climate is not maritime, as in the rest of New Zealand, but continental, and vines have to be planted on hillsides to maximize radiation and escape frost danger. In a good year, however, Central Otago can produce Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, and Riesling to rank among New Zealand's finest, and many believe that this is where the Pinot grail is to be found. The old contention that New Zealand conditions are close to German is truer here than anywhere - and marginal vineyards can make wonderful wine.

MARLBOROUGH

One settler planted vines at Meadowbank in Marlborough in 1867 but for most of the 20th century the South Island grew cereals, sheep and nothing as exotic as vines until 1973 when Montana, the country's dominant wine producer, cautiously established a small commercial vineyard in Marlborough.

Lack of irrigation caused teething problems but by 1980 the first release had been bottled and the special intensity of Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc was too obvious to ignore. Such an exhilarating, easy-to-understand wine clearly had extraordinary potential, rapidly realized by, among others, David Hohnen of Cape Mentelle in Western Australia. In 1985 he launched Cloudy Bay, whose name evocative label, and smoky almost chokingly pungent flavour have since become legendary.

Montana's gamble was vindicated in 1990 when Marlborough overtook Hawkes Bay and Gisborne to become the country's most planted wine region (but with a mere nine wine producers). By the turn of the century it had more than 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) under vine, almost half of them less than six years old. The number of wine producers had risen to 62 and the proportion of fruit leaving the region in bulk to be shipped across the Tasman Straits for processing in the North Island plummeted - much to the benefit of the resultant wine. Today an increas8ng proportion of the growers who once sold their grapes to one of the big companies have their own label, which may well be applied at one of the region's busy contract wineries.

The wide, flat Wairau Valley has become a magnet for investors and those who simply like the idea of making wine their life - even if some of them have been planting so far inland that grapes may not necessarily ripen every year, and on land where the valley's precious water supply is scarce.

What makes Marlborough special as a wine region is its unusual combination of long days, cool nights, bright sunshine, and in good years, dryish autumns. In such relatively low temperatures grapes might have difficulty ripening wherever autumn rains threatened, but here they can usually be left on the vine to benefit from a particularly long ripening period, building high sugars without, thanks to the cool nights, sacrificing the acidity that delineates New Zealand's wines.

The diurnal temperature variation is most marked in the windy Awatere Valley, pioneered by Vavosour and now probably at saturation point because of a shortage of water. Both budbreak and harvest tend to be later in Awatere than on the Wairau Valley floor but summers can be long and hot enough to ripen Bordeaux varieties - in contrast to the main swathe of vineyards in the Wairau Valley. The much-photographed Brancott vineyards also tend to lag behind the valley floor because of their elevation.

But perhaps the most significant variation in Marlborough is that of soils. North of Highway 63, with a few exceptions round Woodbourne, soils are very much younger than those to the south. In places the water table can be dangerously high and the best vineyards on these young, stony soils are the best drained, on light loams over the shingle that was once the river bed. Mature vines develop deep root systems although young vines need irrigation to survive the dry summers.

South of the highway, the lowest-lying older soils are too poorly drained for fine wine production, but higher-altitude vineyards on the exposed barren southern edge of the valley can produce interesting fruit from much drier soils.

Marlborough is almost clearly capable of producing exception quality in Chardonnay, and in Riesling too with some inspiring late-harvest examples. But there is every sign that the region will be a source of serious particularly fruity Pinot Noir as the region's growers pool knowledge of and enthusiasm for this new string to their bow.
The characteristically high acidity of grapes grown in Marlborough means that malolactic fermentation is crucial for still wines, and that the region can poroduce some fine base wines for sparkling wine. The champagne houses have been putting down roots here, and Cloudy Bay's Pelorus is just one sign of another of Marlborough's distinctions.

HAWKES BAY

In New Zeland terms, Hawkes Bay is an historic wine region, having been plantee by Marist missionaries in the mid-19th century. But it was Cabernet made here in the 1960's by the celebrated Tom McDonald for the Australian wine company McWilliam's (at a winery revived in 1990 by Montana for their Church Road label) that hinted of the long-term promise of the area. When serious planting began in the 1970's Hawkes Bay was a logical place to expand, especially with the Cabernet Sauvignon thqt was then de riguer.
Hawkes Bay has been the Kiwi standard-bearer for claret-style reds ever since, but it was only in the late 1990's that the region begn to make wines that demanded attention. The 1998 vintage, so hot and dry that Hawkes Bay's sheep had to be trucked west over the mountains to greener pastures, produced wines that not only had New Zealand's usual crisp definition, but they were obviously made from fully ripe grapes, and had the gentle but insistent tannins to suggest a serious future.
It was also in the late 1990's that growers begin fully to understand and take advantage of the complexities of Hawkes Bay soils. It had long been obvious that the maritime climate of this wide bay on the east coast of the North Island, sheltered from the westerlies by the Ruahine and Kaweka ranges, could offer one of the country's most favourable combinations of relatively low rainfall and high temperatures (albeit lower than Bordeaux's). What happened underground took longer to understand.
An aerial view of Hawkes Bay vividly shows the remarkable variety of deep glacial and alluvial soils and their distribution in a pattern flowing from mountain to sea. Silt, loams and gravel have very different water-holding capacities, one vineyard can be at saturation point, shooting forth vegetations at an embarrassing rate, while another needs irrigation. It became clear that the ripest grapes were grown on the poorest soils which limited vine growth and on which irrigation could carefully control just how much water each vine received.
There are none poorer than the 1,500 acres (600 ha) of deep, warm shingle that remain where the Gimblett Road now runs, northwest of Flaxmere, along what was the course of the Ngaruroro River until a dramatic flood in 1870. The late 1990's saw a viticultural land grab on these so-called Gimblett, or Twyford, gravels, a frenzy during which the last three-quarters of available land was bought and planted.
Other fine areas for ripening red Bordeaux grapes include Bridge Pa just south of and slightly cooler than here, selected sites on the limestone hills of Havelock North such as that colonized by Te Mata early on, and a cool, late-ripening strip of shingle along the coast between Haumona and Te Awanga.

New Zealand suffered excessive Cabernet Sauvignon worship like everywhere else in the 1980's, but even in Hawkes Bay this variety cannot always be relied upon to ripen fully and plantings of the much more reliable, earlier-ripening Merlot have been increasing significantly. Malbec thrives here and ripens even earlier, although it is prone to poor fruit set. When Cabernet Franc is good it is very good. Like Bordeaux, this is a region of exaggerated annual variation, and for much the same reasons as in Bordeaux, most of Hawkes Bay's best-balanced reds are sensitively oaked blends.
Although the Chardonnay crown has been ceded to, or at least claimed by, Gisborne, Chardonnay is still Hawkes Bay's most planted grape variety, making some of New Zealand's most opulent white wines. And the Sauvignon Blancs produced here are big enough to take happily to oak ageing.

Spanish wines are wines produced in the south western European country of Spain. Located on the Iberian Peninsula, Spain has over 2.9 million acres (over 1.17 million hectares) planted-making it the most widely planted wine producing nation, but it is only the third largest producer of wine in the world, the largest being Italy and France. This is due, in part, to the very low yields and wide spacing of the old vines planted on the dry, infertile soil found in many Spanish wine regions. The country is ninth in worldwide consumptions with Spaniards drinking, on average, 10.06 gallons (38 litres) a year. The country has an abundance of native grape varieties, with over 600 varieties planted throughout Spain though 80 percent of the country's wine production is from only 20 grapes-including Tempranillo, Albariño, Garnacha, Palomino, Airen, Macabeo, Parellada, Xarel·lo, Cariñena and Monastrell. Major Spanish wine regions include the Rioja and Ribera del Duero which is known for their Tempranillo production; Jerez, the home of the fortified wine Sherry; Rías Baixas in the northwest region of Galicia that is known for its white wines made from Albariño and Catalonia which includes the Cava and still wine producing regions of the Penedès as well the Priorat region.
The 17th & 18th centuries saw periods of popularity for various Spanish wines-namely Sherry (known in Britain as "sack"), Malaga and Rioja wine but the Spanish wine industry was falling behind other European countries which were embracing the developments of the early Industrial Age. A major turning point occurred in the mid 19th century when the phylloxera epidemic ravaged European vineyards-most notably those of France. With the sudden shortage of French wine, many countries turned to Spain, with French winemakers crossing the Pyrenees to Rioja, Navarre and Catalonia-bringing with them their expertise and winemaking methods. One of these developments was the introduction of the 59 gallon (225 liter) oak barrica. Phylloxera eventually reached Spain, devastating regions like Malaga in 1878 and reaching Rioja in 1901. Its slow progress was due in part to the wide tracts of land, including the Meseta Central that separated the major Spanish wine regions from each other. By the time the Spanish wine industry felt the full force of phylloxera, the remedy of grafting American rootstock to the European vines had already been discovered and widely utilized.
The end of the 19th century also saw the emergences of Spain's sparkling wine industry with the development of Cava in Catalonia. As the 20th century progressed, the production of Cava would rival the Champagne region in worldwide production. Civil and political upheaval would mark most of the 20th century, including a military dictatorship under General Miguel Primo de Rivera. One of the measures instituted by Primo de Rivera was the early groundwork of the Denominación de Origen (DO) appellation system first developed in Rioja in 1926. The Spanish Civil War saw vineyards neglected and wineries destroyed throughout Spain with regions like Catalonia and Valencia being particularly hard hit. The Second World War closed off European markets to Spanish exports and further damaged the Spanish economy.
It wasn't till the 1950s that domestic stability helped to usher in a period of revival for the Spanish wine industry. Several large co-operative wineries were founded during this period and an international market was created for generic bulk wines that were sold under names like Spanish sauternes and Spanish chablis. In the 1960s, Sherry was rediscovered by the international wine market and soon Rioja wine was in demand. The death of Francisco Franco in 1975 and the Spanish transition to democracy allowed more economic freedom for winemakers and created an emerging market with the growing middle class of Spain. The late 1970s and 1980s saw periods of modernization and renewed emphasis on quality wine production. The 1986 acceptance of Spain into the European Union brought economic aid to the rural wine industries of Galicia and La Mancha. The 1990s saw the influence of flying winemakers from abroad and broader acceptance of the use of international grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. In 1996, the restrictions on irrigation were lifted which gave winemakers greater control over yields and what areas could be planted. Soon the quality and production volume of premium wines began to overtake the presence of generic Spanish bulk wines on the market and Spain's reputation entering the 21st century was that of a serious wine producing country that could compete with other producers in the world wine market.
One of the dominant geographical influences of Spanish viticulture is the vast plateau known as the Meseta Central that covers much of central Spain. From there flow to the sea several of Spain's principal rivers that are at the heart of many Spanish wine regions. These include the eastward flowing Ebro river that runs through the Rioja and several Catalan wine regions; the Duero which flows westward through the Ribera del Duero region in Spain before crossing the border into Portugal's Douro Valley which is at the heart of Port wine production; the Tajo which runs through the La Mancha region; Guadalquivir which flows into the Atlantic at the Sherry producing village of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. In addition to the Meseta Central, several mountain ranges known as cordilleras serve to isolate and influence the climate of several Spanish wine regions. These include the Cantabrian Mountains that spur westward from the Pyrenees and protect regions like the Rioja from the rain and the cool of westerlies coming from the Bay of Biscay. The Cantabrian Mountains act as a rain shadow with the coastal regions of the Basque Country receiving an average of 59 inches (1,500 mm) while the winemaking region of Rioja, near Haro, around 62 miles (100 km) away receives only 18 inches (460 mm). In Galicia on the northwest coast, the region receives annual rainfall that ranges from 39 inches (990 mm) on the coast to 79 inches (2.0 m) near the mountainous border of Castile and León.
The climate gets more extreme further inland towards the Meseta Central and is characterized by hot summers with temperatures that can reach 104 °F (40 °C) with drought conditions. Many regions receive less than 12 inches (300 mm) of rain annually with most of the rain falling during sudden downpours in the spring and autumn that can pose the risk of flash flooding. Winters in these regions are characterized by cold temperatures that can often fall below freezing around ?8 °F (?22.2 °C). Towards the southeast, around Valencia, the climate is more moderate with the strong Mediterranean influence. In the south, the Sherry and Malaga producing regions of Andalusia contain some of the hottest parts of Spain. North of the Sierra Nevada mountains in the Guadalquivir Valley, temperatures often reach 113 °F (45 °C) in the summer. To adapt to these high temperatures, many Spanish vineyards will be planted on higher elevations, with many vineyards located over 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level. These high altitudes create a large diurnal temperature variation with low night time temperatures that allow the grapes to maintain acidity levels and colouring. Regions with lower altitude vineyards such as along the southern Mediterranean coast are suitable for producing grapes of high alcohol levels and low acidity.
Spanish wine laws created the Denominación de Origen (DO) system in 1932 and were later revised in 1970. The system shares many similarities with the hierarchical Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) system of France and Italy's Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) system. As of 2009, there were 77 Quality Wine areas across Spain. In addition there is Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa or DOQ in Catalan) status for DOs that have a consistent track record for quality. There are currently two DOCa/DOQ regions: Rioja and Priorat. Each DO has a Consejo Regulador, which acts as a governing control body that enforces the DO regulations and standards involving viticultural and winemaking practices. These regulations govern everything from the types of grapes that are permitted to be planted, the maximum yields that can be harvested, the minimum length of time that the wine must be aged and what type of information is required to appear on the wine label. Wineries that are seeking to have their wine sold under DO or DOC status must submit their wines to the Consejo Regulador laboratory and tasting panel for testing and evaluation. Wines that have been granted DO/DOC status will feature the regional stamp of the Consejo Regulador on the label.
Following Spain's acceptance into the European Union, Spanish wine laws were brought in line to be more consistent with other European systems. One development was a five-tier classification system that is administered by each autonomous region. Non-autonomous areas or wine regions whose boundaries overlap with other autonomous communities (such as Cava, Rioja and Jumilla) are administered by the Instituto Nacional de Denominaciones de Origen (INDO) based in Madrid. The five-tier classifications, starting from the bottom, include:

* Vino de Mesa (VdM) - These are wines that are the equivalent of most country's table wines and are made from unclassified vineyards or grapes that have been declassified through "illegal" blending. Similar to the Italian Super Tuscans from the late 20th century, some Spanish winemakers will intentionally declassify their wines so that they have greater flexibility in blending and winemaking methods.
* Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT) - This level is similar to France's vin de pays system, normally corresponding to the larger comunidad autonóma geographical regions and will appear on the label with these broader geographical designations like Andalucia, Castilla La Mancha and Levante.
* Vino de Calidad Producido en Región Determinada (VCPRD) - This level is similar to France's Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) system and is considered a stepping stone towards DO status.
* Denominación de Origen (Denominació d'Origen in Catalan - DO)- This level is for the mainstream quality-wine regions which are regulated by the Consejo Regulador who is also responsible for marketing the wines of that DO. In 2005, nearly two thirds of the total vineyard area in Spain was within the boundaries a DO region.
* Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa/DOQ - Denominació d'Origen Qualificada in Catalan)- This designation, which is similar to Italy's Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) designation, is for regions with a track record of consistent quality and is meant to be a step above DO level. Rioja was the first region afforded this designation in 1991 and was followed by Priorat in 2003, and Ribera del Duero in 2008.

Additionally there is the Denominación de Pago (DO de Pago) designation for individual single-estates with an international reputation. As of 2009, there were 9 estates with this status.
Spanish wines are often labeled according to the amount of ageing the wine has received. When the label says vino joven ("young wine") or sin crianza, the wines will have undergone very little, if any, wood ageing. Depending on the producer, some of these wines will be meant to be consumed very young - often within a year of their release. Others will benefit from some time ageing in the bottle. For the vintage year (vendimia or cosecha) to appear on the label, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be from that year's harvest. The three most common ageing designations on Spanish wine labels are Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva.

* Crianza red wines are aged for 2 years with at least 6 months in oak. Crianza whites and rosés must be aged for at least 1 year with at least 6 months in oak.
* Reserva red wines are aged for at least 3 years with at least 1 year in oak. Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 2 years with at least 6 months in oak.
* Gran Reserva wines typically appear in above average vintages with the red wines requiring at least 5 years ageing, 18 months of which in oak. Gran Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 4 years with at least 6 months in oak.
Spain has a relatively large number of distinct wine-producing regions, more than half having the classification Denominación de Origen (DO) with the majority of the remainder classified as Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT). There are two regions nominated as Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa) - Rioja and Priorato - the flagship regions of Spanish winemaking. While most make both red and white wine, some wine regions are more dominated by one style than the other.
While traditionally Spanish vineyards would harvest their grapes by hand, the modernization of the Spanish wine industry has seen increased use of mechanical harvesting. In years past, most harvesting had to be done in the early morning with wineries often refusing grapes after mid-day due to their prolonged exposure to the blistering heat. In recent years, aided in part by the wider spread of the use of mechanical harvesting, more harvests are now being done in the cooler temperatures at night.
Some records estimate that over 600 grape varieties are planted throughout Spain but 80% of the country's wine production is focused on only 20 grape varieties. The most widely planted grape is the white wine grape Airén, prized for its hardiness and resistance to drop. It is found throughout central Spain and for many years served as the base for Spanish brandy. Wines made from this grape can be very alcoholic and prone to oxidation. The red wine grape Tempranillo is the second most widely planted grape variety, recently eclipsing Garnacha in plantings in 2004. It is known throughout Spain under a variety of synonyms that may appear on Spanish wine labels-including Cencibel, Tinto Fino and Ull de Llebre. Both Tempranillo and Garnacha are used to make the full-bodied red wines associated with the Rioja, Ribera del Duero and Penedès with Garnacha being the main grape of the Priorat region. In the Levante region, Monastrell and Bobal have significant plantings, being used for both dark red wines and dry rosé.

In the northwest, the white wine varieties of Albariño and Verdejo are popular plantings in the Rías Baixas and Rueda respectively. In the Cava producing regions of Catalonia and elsewhere in Spain, the principal grapes of Macabeo, Parellada and Xarel·lo are used for sparkling wine production as well as still white wines. In the southern Sherry and Malaga producing regions of Andalucia, the principal grapes are Palomino and Pedro Ximénez. As the Spanish wine industry becomes more modern, there has been a larger presence of international grape varieties appearing in both blends and varietal forms-most notably Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Syrah, Merlot and Sauvignon blanc. Other Spanish grape varieties that have significant plantings include Cariñena, Godello, Graciano, Mencia, Loureira, and Treixadura.
In Spain, winemakers often use the Spanish word elaborar (to elaborate) rather than fabricar (to produce/make) when describing the Spanish winemaking philosophy. This relates to the view that the winemaker acts as more of a nurturer of the grapes and wine rather than as a producer. For many years, Spanish winemaking was very rustic and steeped in tradition. This included the judicious use of oak with some wines, even whites, spending as much as two decades ageing in the barrel. This created distinctly identifiable flavours that were internationally associated with the wines from regions such as the Rioja. In the 19th century, wine writers held negative views about Spanish winemaking. Richard Ford noted in 1846 that the Spanish made wine in an "unscientific and careless manner" while Cyrus Redding noted in his work the History and Description of Modern wines that Spanish gave "rude treatment" to the grapes. Some of these criticisms were rooted in the traditional manners of winemaking that that were employed in Spain. Crushing and fermentation would take place in earthenware jars known as tinajas. Afterwards the wine was stored in wooden barrels or pig skin bags lined with resin known as cueros. In the warmer climate and regions of lower elevation, the red wines tilted towards being too high in alcohol and too low in acidity. The standard technique to rectify those wines was the addition of white wine grapes which balanced the acidity but diluted some of the fruit flavours of the red grapes.
The advent of temperature control stainless steel fermentation tanks radically changed the wine industry in warm climate regions like Andalucia, La Mancha and the Levante, allowing winemakers to make fresher and fruitier styles of wine-particularly whites. While many producers focused on these crisp, fresh styles in the early 1990s there was a resurgence in more active use of barrel fermenting whites as a throwback to the traditional, more oxidized styles of the 19th century. The use of oak has a long tradition in Spanish winemaking, dating back even centuries before the French introduced the small 59 gallon (225 litre) barrica style barrels. Gradually Spanish winemakers in the late 19th and early 20th century started to develop a preference for the cheaper, and more stronger flavored, American oak. Winemakers in regions like the Rioja found that the Tempranillo grape, in particular, responded well to new American oak. In the 1990s, more winemakers started to rediscover the use of French oak and some wineries will use a combination of both as a blend. Most DOs require some minimum period of barrel ageing which will be stipulated on the wine label by the designations-Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva depending on how long it spends in the barrel. The tradition of long barrel and bottle ageing has meant that most Spanish wines are ready to drink once they hit the market. A new generation of winemakers have started to produce more vino joven (young wines) that are released with very little ageing.
Cava is a Spanish sparkling wine made in the traditional method of the French sparkling wine Champagne. It originated in the Catalonia region at the Codorníu Winery in the late 19th century. The wine was originally known as Champaña until Spanish producers officially adopted the term "Cava" (cellar) in 1970 in reference to the underground cellars in which the wines ferment and age in the bottle. The early Cava industry was nurtured by the phylloxera epidemic of the late 19th that caused the destruction and uprooting of vineyards planted with red grape varieties. Inspired by the success of Champagne, Codorníu and others encouraged vineyard owners to replant with white grape varieties like Macabeo, Parellada and Xarel·lo to use for sparkling wine production. These grapes are still the primary grapes of Cava today though some producers are experimenting with the use of the Champagne wine grapes of Chardonnay and Pinot noir.
For most of existence, the production of Cava was not regulated to a particular region of DO but rather to the grapes and method of production. Upon Spain's acceptance into the European Union in 1986, efforts were undertaken to designate specific areas for Cava production. Today use of the term "Cava" is restricted to production around select municipalities in Catalonia, Aragon, Castile and León, Valencia, Extremadura, Navarra, Basque Country and Rioja. Around 95% of Spain's total Cava production is from Catalonia with the village of Sant Sadurní d'Anoia being home to many of Spain's largest production houses.